Brazil
(THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL)
A vast republic of central South America covering an area larger
than that of the United States of America (if Alaska and the
Philippines are not included). It extends from 5° N. to
33° 41' S. latitude, and from 35° to 73° W.
longitude. Its greatest length is 2,500 miles, its greatest breadth
2,600 miles, and it has an area of 3,218,130 square miles. It borders
every other country on the continent of South American except Chile,
being bounded on the north by Venezuela, British, Dutch, and French
Guiana, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on
the south by Uruguay and the Argentine Republic, and on the west by
Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador.
Brazil lies entirely east of the Andean mountain system. The basin of
the Amazon occupies the northern and western portion of the country,
and nearly the whole of this section is a vast plain, called the
Selvas, which is, for the most part, less than 500 feet above
sea level, and never exceeds 1,000 feet. The southern and eastern
parts are plateaux, rising to heights of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
Upon these plateaux are situated many mountain ranges. (This is said
to be geologically the oldest part of the continent.) The mountain
ranges of Brazil may be grouped into three systems, the most important
of which is the Serra do Mar, which begins immediately north of the bay
of Rio Janeiro, where the Organ mountains rise to 7,500 feet. This
forms the southeastern slope of the plateau to the narrow strip of
coast along the Atlantic. In this system, to the west of Rio de
Janeiro, is the highest peak in Brazil, Itatiaia, which has a height of
nearly 10,000 feet. Connecting with this range near Rio de Janeiro,
and stretching northward, is the Serra Central, while a third system
stretches northwestwards, separating the headwaters of the Sao
Francisco and Tocantins Rivers from those of the Parana.
The Atlantic coast line of the republic is about 4,000 miles long.
North of Cape St. Roque it is low, and the slope towards the sea is
gradual, but to the south of this cape the coast line is more elevated,
the slope to the sea is steeper, and in the extreme south it becomes
abrupt. The northern coast is but little broken, thus having few good
harbours and not many islands, but along the southern coast there are
many fine harbours. The system of rivers is perhaps unequalled for
their number and the length of their courses in any part of the world.
They are especially important in the north of Brazil, where they
constitute the chief means of travel through a region rich in natural
resources. Owing to the copious rainfall, most Brazilian rivers are
navigable throughout the year. The principal ones are the Amazon,
which is 2500 miles long and is navigable throughout almost its whole
length, the Tocantins, and the Sao Francisco.
CLIMATE
Covering so large an extent of territory, Brazil naturally
has variations of climate. In the lowlands of the north, which are
within the tropics, there is great heat, and the year is divided
between the rainy and dry seasons of tropical regions. The rainy
season begins in December or January and lasts until May or June. The
rest of the year is generally dry. However, dry periods frequently
occur during the rainy season, and rainy periods during the dry season.
In the highlands of the central and southern portions there are four
fairly well marked seasons. The vast Amazon basin is remarkable for
its small seasonal variation of temperature; the thermometer rarely
rises above 90° or falls below 75°. In the two
southernmost States, Rio Grande do Sul and Sao Paulo, the temperature
at times goes to the freezing point, especially in the highlands. The
prevailing winds are the trade winds from the east. These are the
strongest in the valley of the Amazon from July to November, and thus
the heat of the dry season is somewhat mitigated. The country is
generally healthful, with the exception of the marshy banks of some of
the rivers, the swamps, and regions where drainage is poor; in these
places intermittent fevers are very common. Yellow fever has appeared
at times, but has always been confined to the coast.
AGRICULTURE
Brazil has extensive tracts of fertile land, especially
along the Amazon and in the south-eastern portion; but the greater part
of the plateaux is fit only for grazing. By far the most important
product is coffee, of which Brazil produces more than any other country
in the world. The principal coffee regions are Sao Paulo, Minas
Geraes, Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. Sugar, the next product in
importance, is extensively produced in Pernambuco, Bahia, and Ceara,
tobacco in Bahia, and cocoa in the lower Amazon. Maize, beans, rice,
and tropical fruits and vegetables are grown, but more for home
consumption than for export.
MINERAL RESOURCES
In mineral resources Brazil is probably the richest
country in the world, but scarcity of population and capital have
retarded its progress. It is rich in gold and diamonds, especially the
State of Minas Geraes, which is to Brazil more than California and
Pennsylvania together are to the United States. Gold-mining is carried
on to a limited extent in Minas Geraes and Bahia, chiefly with British
capital. These same two states were at one time the world's chief
producers of diamonds, but the discovery of the South African mines has
great depreciated the Brazilian product, which amounts to about 40,000
carats per year, and it is estimated that since the discovery of
diamonds in Brazil (1723) the total yield has been 12,000,000 carats,
valued at $100,000,000. Besides gold and diamonds, Brazil is rich in
iron, lead, copper, zinc, manganese, and quicksilver, but the mining of
these is impeded by the lack of cheap fuel and labour.
MANUFACTURES
These are generally on a comparatively small scale. The
most important is the production of cotton goods, especially in the
northern cities. In 1899 there were 134 cotton factories within the
republic. Boots, shoes, cord, twine, hempen cloths for coffee sacks,
furniture, saddles, and hats are also manufactured.
RAILROADS AND TRANSPORTATION
Railway enterprise has made some little
progress. In 1899 there were 8723 miles of railroad in operation, 4992
miles in course of construction, and 8440 miles projected. The most
complete railroad systems are in the coffee regions of Sao Paulo, Minas
Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro. A considerable proportion of these roads
was built with a government guarantee of interest on the outlay. The
rivers have steam navigation through many miles of their courses, and
there are several Brazilian lines of coasting steamers.
COMMERCE
The foreign commerce of Brazil is quite large and is
increasing yearly. Coffee is the staple article of commerce,
constituting about sixty per cent of the total exports. Most of it
finds a market in the United States. Sugar is second in importance,
and then come rubber, cotton, hides, tobacco, dye and cabinet woods,
gold, and diamonds. The imports consist of all kinds of manufactured
goods, cotton and woollen clothing, machinery, ironware, coal,
petroleum, and foodstuffs. Great Britain controls about forty per cent
of the import trade. Germany and France are next in importance, and
the United States is next.
POPULATION
The population of Brazil, according to the official
returns of 1890, was 14,333,915. A later census, taken in 1900, was
rejected by the legislature as inaccurate. The population in 1903
according to an unofficial estimate was 19,500,000. According to the
official figures of 1890, there were 14,179,615 Catholics; 143,743
Protestants; 3300 of other creeds; and 7257 who professed no religion.
It will thus be seen that the country is overwhelmingly Catholic. The
population is composed of: (1) people of pure Portuguese blood, who
form a large percentage of the total; (2) full negroes; (3) native
Indians; (4) people of mixed race (the most numerous of all); and (5) a
few European immigrants. The Portuguese portion of the population, as
they constitute the wealthy and educated class, have made Portuguese
the national language. Most of the semi-civilized Indians,
particularly in the eastern States, speak the lingua geral, a
language adapted by the Jesuit missionaries form the original language
of the Tupinambaras, one of the largest of the eastern tribes. There
are many different tribes, among which the chief are the Tupi, the
Guarany, and the Amagua.
GOVERNMENT
Brazil is a federal republic of twenty States, with a
Federal District. The constitution is modelled upon that of the United
States. The legislative power is vested in the president of the
republic and a national congress consisting of a Senate and a House of
Representatives. The Senate consists of 63 members, three from each
State and the Federal District, elected directly by the people for a
period of nine years. The House of Representatives consists of a
number of members elected by the people for a term of three years, one
representative for each 70,000 inhabitants, but with a minimum
membership of four for any State. All who are legally citizens of the
republic exercise the right to vote, except beggars, illiterates,
soldiers receiving pay, and those who for any reason may have lost
their rights as citizens. The executive authority is exercised by the
president, or in his absence or disability, a vice-president. The
president is elected by popular vote for a term of four years, and he
cannot serve for two successive terms. He is assisted by a cabinet,
the members of which he appoints or removes at will. The cabinet
ministers preside over the following six departments: (1) finance; (2)
war; (3) industry, railways, and public works; (4) interior and
justice; (5) Navy; (6) foreign affairs. The president, by virtue of
his office, is in supreme command of the Army and Navy. He possesses
the veto power over legislation, but his veto may be overruled by a
two-thirds vote of both Houses. The judicial power is vested in a
federal supreme court consisting of fifteen members who are appointed
for life by the president with the approval of the Senate. The States
enjoy a greater measure of autonomy than those of the United States of
North America. They are governed by their own legislatures and
governors and have their own judicial systems. Each State is divided
into municipalities; each municipality controlled by a council and a
prefect.
RELIGION
Under the Empire the Catholic was the only recognized
Church, and it was supported by the States. Other religions were
tolerated, but the Catholic was the official church. After the
revolution of 1889, however, the separation of Church and State was
decreed. The Provisional Government issued, 7 January, 1890, a decree
proclaiming the separation of Church and State, guaranteeing freedom of
worship, and declaring that no church thereafter should be subsidized
by the government, nor in any way receive support either from the
federal government or from those of the individual States. By the
terms of this decree public officers were forbidden to interfere in any
way with the formation of religious societies, and it was declared to
be unlawful to stir up religious dissension among the people. Every
religious body was at liberty to worship according to its own rites,
while each individual could live according to his belief, and unite in
societies with others, and build churches if he chose The salaries of
those in the service of the Church were ordered to be discontinued at
the expiration of a year. The existing churchyards were secularized,
and the question of the establishment of new cemeteries was left in the
hands of individual communities. Religious bodies, however, could
choose separate burial places, though always subject to the laws. The
existing religious holidays, except Sunday, were abolished by another
decree, and nine new ones established commemorating secular events.
Later, a civil marriage law was passed, somewhat resembling those of
the United States and France, and also a divorce law. This latter,
however, bore the stamp of the religious training of the people, for by
its terms, neither party was permitted to marry again during the life
of the other.
The conversion of Brazil, beginning about the middle of the sixteenth
century, was brought about by the Jesuits, after whom came the
Franciscans, and these were followed by the Benedictines. The country
today is almost entirely Catholic. Of the nineteen and a half
millions, over eighteen millions are of the Catholic faith. There are
5127 churches and chapels, 2067 secular and 559 regular clergy; 2083
nuns engaged in hospitals and educational institutions; 524 schools, 12
large and 17 small seminaries.
ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION
The entire republic is divided into the
two ecclesiastical provinces of Sao Salvador da Bahia and Sao Sabastiao
(Rio de Janeiro). Each province containing nine suffragan dioceses, as
follows: Province of Sao Salvador da Bahia (diocese created
1552, archdiocese 1676); suffragan dioceses of Olinda (1676); Sao Luis
do Maranhao (1676); Belem do Para (1719); Goyaz (1826); Fortaleza, or
Ceara (1854); Manaos (1893); Parahyba, (1893); Alagoas (1901); Piauhy
(1902). Province of Sao Sebastiao (diocese created 1675,
archdiocese 1893); suffragan dioceses of Cuyaba (1745); Marianna
(1745); Sao Paulo (1745); Sao Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul (1848);
Diamantina (1854); Curityba do Parana (1893); Petropolis (1893);
Espirito Santo (1896); Porto Alegre (1900). Brazil has received a
great honour at the hands of the present pope, that of having the first
South American cardinal ever nominated chosen amongst its clergy.
EDUCATION.--During the three centuries of colonial rule, Brazil made
very little progress in the education of its people. There were few
schools except the Jesuit colleges, and whatever libraries there were
belonged to private individuals. The wealthy classes sent their
children to Portugal to study, while those who could not bear this
expense remained ignorant. After the declaration of independence, in
1822, conditions were somewhat improved, but the educational system was
so crude that little progress was made until 1854, when the whole
school system was reorganized. Since then there has been good progress
in education, literature, and science, especially in the large cities.
In the interior education is in a backward state, owing to the
isolation of the inhabitants, and to lack of facilities of
communication. For this reason the percentage of illiteracy for the
entire country remains high (above 84%). At the present time Brazil has
a system of elementary, secondary, and higher education. Congress has
the sole power to create institutions of higher instruction and
secondary, and secondary, or high-school, education throughout the
country, as well as of primary education in the Federal District. The
Constitution provides that instruction given in public institutions
shall be secular, and that primary education be free and at the expense
of the States and municipalities. In most of the States primary
education is compulsory. The schools are generally well equipped with
libraries, laboratories, and appliances and furniture of different
kinds. The primary schools are divided into first- and second-grade
schools. Secondary education is also organized on a good basis. At
the head of these secondary schools stands the Gymnasio
Nacional at Rio de Janeiro, which was formerly Pedro II College.
The national institutions devoted to the higher, or university,
education are: two law schools at Pernambuco and Sao Paulo; two medical
schools at Rio de Janeiro and Bahia; a polytechnic school at Rio de
Janeiro; a mining school at Ouro Preto, in the State of Minas Geraes; a
school of fine art at Rio de Janeiro. There are some excellent public
libraries throughout the country, the largest being the National
Library at Rio de Janeiro, which contains 235,000 printed volumes,
182,000 manuscripts, and 100,000 iconographical pieces. This
institution was begun with the historical library which King John VI
brought from Portugal and presented to Brazil, and it was greatly
augmented by the collection of the great Portuguese wrier Barbosa
Machado.
HISTORY
Brazil was discovered on the 26th of January, 1500, by
Vicente Yanez Pinzon, a Spaniard who had been a companion of Columbus.
Two months later Dom Manoel, King of Portugal, fitted out a squadron
for a voyage around the southern end of Africa to the East Indies under
command of Pedro Alvares de Cabral. Contrary winds, however, drove him
far out of his course, and after drifting about for some time he came
upon an unknown land. He cast anchor in a haven which he called Porto
Seguro, on Good Friday, 24 April, 1500. On Easter Sunday an altar was
erected, Mass was celebrated, and Cabral formally took possession of
the country in the name of Portugal. He then continued on his way to
India, but first dispatching one of his ships to Portugal to report his
discovery. Cabral named the newly discovered land Vera Cruz
(the land of the True Cross), but the king in notifying the sovereigns
called it Santa Cruz (Holy Cross). Very shortly thereafter it
began to be called Brazil, from the name of a wood which grew
in that region, and the name ha been retained ever since.
Although the country had been discovered by a Spaniard, Spain could
make no claim. According to the Bull of Alexander VI (4 May, 1493),
the dividing line between Spanish and Portuguese possessions had been
fixed at a meridian 100 leagues west of Cape Verde. All discoveries
east of this line were to belong to Portugal; those west of it to
Spain. But in the year following, by the Treaty of Tordesillas, the
dividing line was extended to 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde
Islands, and Spain was thus barred from the eastern portion of South
America. In order to encourage colonization, grants, or "captaincies",
were given to prominent Portuguese who were willing to settle in the
country. The grants comprised not less than fifty leagues of sea
coast, wit feudal powers and the privilege of extending their
possessions as far inland as the grantees desired. Thus nearly the
entire Brazilian coast was before long dotted with Portuguese
settlements more or less skilfully administered. The first of these
was established in 1532, at S. Vicente, within the present State of S.
Paulo, by Marinho Affonso de Souza, and the others at intervals
thereafter. Cattle and sugarcane were imported from Madeira, and the
systematic cultivation of the latter began.
But these early settlers had great troubles--with the Spaniards, who
sought to gain a foothold east of the line of demarcation; with the
French, who were trying to establish themselves on the coast; with the
natives who were antagonistic to all Europeans. So that, for their
common protection, it was deemed expedient that the "captains" should
forego some of their prerogatives, and concentrate all the Portuguese
power into the hands of a Governor General appointed by the Crown. The
first Governor General was Thome de Sousa, who came over in 1547 and
placed his capital at Bahia. The College of Sao Paulo was established
in Piratininga soon after the arrival of the first Bishop of Brazil, in
1552, and of a number of the Jesuits in 1553. These first missionaries
became friendly with the natives, and their college soon became a
centre of influence. In 1555 Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon, aided by
Coligny, the French Huguenot leader, settled with a few Frenchmen on a
little island in the bay of Rio de Janeiro. But these French settlers
were driven away by the Portuguese in 1560, and France was ever after
unable to gain a foothold in Brazil. The settlement, however, was made
permanent by the Portuguese who gave it the name of Sao Sebastiao, and
to this day Rio de Janeiro is officially called Sao Sebastiao do Rio de
Janeiro.
From 1580 to 1640, Brazil, as a dependency of Portugal, was in the
hands of Spain, and during the latter part of this period Holland,
being at war with Spain, seized a good portion of the country. A long
struggle between Portugal and Holland for the possession of the country
followed later, lasting until 1654, when the Dutch surrendered the
places they held, and the Portuguese were rid of all European rivals
In 1763 the capital was changed to Rio de Janeiro, and the Governor was
given the title of Viceroy of Portugal.
In 1807 Napoleon's troops invaded Portugal, with the intention of
seizing the royal family. The prince regent, Dom Joao, fled, with the
royal family, and under an English escort set sail for Brazil, where he
was enthusiastically received. Here Dom Joao instituted several
reforms, notable among which were the opening of all Brazilian ports to
the commerce of the world and the decree of 16 January, 1815, declaring
Brazil to be no longer a colony, but an integral part of the Kingdom of
Portugal. Soon after this, the prince regent succeeded to the throne
as Dom Joao VI. Revolutionary troubles in Portugal, in 1820, making it
necessary for Dom Joao to return thither, he appointed his son Dom
Pedro, a young man of twenty-three, "Lieutenant to the King" and set
sail for Portugal in 1821. From that time the Portuguese Cortes began
to regard Brazil with anxiety; Dom Pedro was considered as more
Brazilian than Portuguese. Revolutionary disturbances, moreover, had
broken out in several of the provinces, notably in Pernambuco and
Bahia. To check the growing power of Brazil, measures were passed
detrimental to her interests, and tending to a revival of colonial
conditions. As the Brazilian members of the Cortes were greatly in the
minority, their resistance could not be effective. Matters came to a
crisis when the Cortes finally ordered Dom Pedro to return to Portugal.
The Brazilians rallied and besought him to ignore the order. Realizing
his opportunity Dom Pedro struck the first blow for independence, his
decision being received with the greatest enthusiasm. The few
Portuguese troops stationed in the country made but a half-hearted
resistance, and on the 12th of October, 1822, Dom Pedro was proclaimed
Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil.
A popular assembly was convened in May, 1823, and a message from the
emperor was read proposing many liberal ideas to be embodied in the
forthcoming constitution. But discontented spirits raised such bitter
opposition in the assembly that the emperor dissolved it. He later
appointed a committee of ten to draft the constitution, and it was
finally adopted 24 March, 1825. Dom Pedro's popularity, however, soon
began to wane. He produced the impression of not being truly Brazilian
at heart, by his employment of a foreign force, by his continual
interference in the affairs of Portugal, and especially by his
appointment of Portuguese to the highest offices, to the exclusion of
the natives. The Brazilians became disgusted at seeing their
government conducted by foreigners, and soon they were in open
rebellion. After vain attempts to suppress the revolution, the emperor
abdicated (7 April, 1831) in favour of his six-year-old son, Dom Pedro
de Alcantara, and sailed away to Portugal.
The government was now placed in the hands of a regency, consisting at
first of three members and later of a single individual. In 1840, when
the young emperor had reached the age of fifteen, it was proposed by
those who had become disgusted at the abuses of the regency, that the
minority of Dom Pedro II be declared expired, in spite of the fact that
the constitution had fixed the minority of the emperor at eighteen
years. After a heated and acrimonious debate, the regency was
abolished, and the young emperor placed in full possession of the
throne (23 July, 1840). The new government had trouble at intervals
with the Republican party, notably in 1848; but these risings were
easily suppressed. In 1851 Brazil took an active part in thwarting the
designs of the Argentine dictator, Rosas, who sought to seize Uruguay
and Paraguay. Rosas was driven from the country and had to take refuge
in England. In 1853 a decree was issued forbidding the importation of
slaves. Yellow fever, until then unknown in Brazil, had made its
appearance a short time before, and it was thought that the disease had
been brought into the country by the slaves. In 1855 a fleet was sent
to settle a dispute with Paraguay, concerning Brazil's right of way
upon the Parana River, the claim of Brazil being based upon the fact
that the river has its origin within her boundaries. The expedition
was unsuccessful, and for ten years thereafter Brazil was hampered by
many restrictions. In 1864 an outrage against Brazil on the part of
Senor Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, precipitated a conflict between
Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay on one side and Paraguay on the other.
A bitter struggle now ensued, Paraguay offering a stubborn resistance
which ended only with the death of Lopez in battle in 1870. Brazil,
bearing the brunt of the war on her side, lost many thousands of men
and a vast amount of money.
In 1871 the death-blow was given to slavery in Brazil by a decree
providing that every child thereafter born of slave parents should be
free. Slavery had been greatly checked since the decree of 1853
prohibiting the importation of slaves, so that, with this new law in
force, it was not long before slavery came to an end in the country.
On 1 May, 1886, the Princess Isabelle, regent of Brazil while the
emperor was in Europe, proclaimed the abolition of slavery.
The fact that Dom Pedro reigned for nearly fifty years would indicate
that he was liberal-minded, progressive, and enlightened, and that he
was well liked by the people. But the work of freemasonry and the loss
the planters suffered by the emancipation of their slaves created a
spirit of disaffection. The outcome was that, after a bloodless
revolution (15 November, 1889), Dom Pedro was deposed, and a Republic
was proclaimed, with General Deodoro da Fonseca as head of the
provisional government. A decree was issued continuing the imperial
civil list and granting Dom Pedro a subsidy of $2,500,000, both of
which offers were refused by him. On the following day (16 November)
Dom Pedro and his family set sail for Portugal. The new Constitution,
modelled upon that of the United States, was promulgated 23 June, 1890,
and in February of the following year General Fonseca was elected
president of the new republic. But before the end of that year his
arbitrary methods precipitated a revolutionary movement in Rio de
Janeiro, and he was compelled to resign. He was succeeded by the
vice-president, General Peixoto. In 1893, a revolt, headed by Admirals
Da Gama and Mello, was started; but it was of short duration. Rio de
Janeiro was blockaded by the rebels, but the revolution collapsed soon
after. In 1894 Peixoto was succeeded by Dr. Prudente de Moraes, who
was called upon to face still another uprising, in 1897, under the
leadership of Antonio Conseilheiro. After a few months this trouble
also was crushed. In 1898 Dr. Campos Salles, who had been active in
republican politics, succeeded to the presidential chair; Dr. Francisco
Rodrigues Alves succeeded him 15 November, 1902, and Affonso Penna
assumed office 15 November, 1906.
Kidder and Fletcher, Brazil and the Brazilians (1857);
Agassiz, Journey in Brazil (1868); Levasseur, Le
Bresil (1889); Koster, Travels in Brazil (1817); Hartt,
Geology ad Physical Geography of Brazil (1870); United
States Bureau of American Republics, Bulletin No. 7 (1901);
Southey, History of Brazil (1810-19); Varnhagen, Historia
Geral do Brazil (1855); Da Silva, Historia do fundacao do
imperio brazileiro (5 vols., 1864-82); Galanti, Compendio de
Historia do Brazil (4 vols., 1896); Giron y Aracas, La
Situacion Juridica de la Iglesia Catolica en los Diversos Estados de
Europa y America (1905); Widder in Buchberger, Kirchlieches
Handlexikon (1907); Konversations Lexikon (1903); Schlitz
in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach (Freiburg im Br., 1906), LXX, No. 5.
VENTURA FUENTES
Transcribed by Susan Birkenseer
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II
Copyright © 1907 by Robert Appleton Company
Online Edition Copyright © 1999 by Kevin Knight
Imprimatur.+John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York